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So
You Want to Be a Forensic Scientist!
WELCOME TO THE FASCINATING WORLD OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
A guide to the many possibilities for satisfying life choices
of careers combining science and service in the interests
of society, justice and public safety.
What is Forensic Science?
What Do Forensic Scientists Do?
- Work
- Ethics
- Testimony
What's a Forensic Scientist?
- How Do I Become a Forensic Scientist?
- How Much Money Will I
Make?
- Where Will I Work?
Kinds of Forensic Science:
Discipline Sections Within the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences
- Criminalistics
-
Digital & Multimedia Sciences
- Engineering
Sciences
- General
- Jurisprudence
- Odontology
- Pathology/Biology
- Physical
Anthropology
- Psychiatry
& Behavioral Science
- Questioned
Documents
- Toxicology
Resource List
What
is Forensic Science?
The word forensic comes from the Latin word
forensis: public; to the forum or public discussion;
argumentative, rhetorical, belonging to debate or discussion.
From there it is a small step to the modern definition of
forensic as belonging to, used in or suitable to courts of
judicature, or to public discussion or debate. Forensic science
is science used in public, in a court, or in the justice system.
Any science used for the purposes of the law is a forensic
science.
What
Do Forensic Scientists Do?
The forensic sciences form a vital part of the
entire justice and regulatory system. Some of the different
divisions, or disciplines, of forensic science have become
identified primarily with law enforcement — an image enhanced by
television and movies. This is misleading because forensic
scientists are involved in all aspects of criminal cases, and
the results of their work may serve either the defense or the
prosecution. The forensic scientist's goal is the evenhanded
use of all available information to determine the facts and,
subsequently, the truth. The forensic scientist's role in the
civil justice arena is expanding. Issues range from questions of
the validity of a signature on a will, to a claim of product
liability, to questions of whether a corporation is complying
with environmental laws, and the protection of constitutionally
guaranteed individual rights. Forensic science is a rewarding
career where the love of science can be applied to the good of
society, public health, and public safety.
Work
The work of the forensic scientist may reduce the number of
cases entering the overloaded court system by assisting the
decision-makers before a case reaches the court. The facts
developed by forensic scientists, based on scientific
investigation, not circumstantial evidence or the sometimes
unreliable testimony of witnesses, may convince prosecuting or
defense attorneys, a grand jury, or a judge that an issue does
not merit a court hearing.
The work of the forensic scientist at times proves the existence
of a crime or makes connections to a crime. The forensic
scientist provides information and expert opinion to
investigators, attorneys, judges, and juries which is helpful in
determining the innocence or guilt of the accused.
The rule of law is based on the belief that the legal process
results in justice. This has come under some question in recent
years. Of course, the forensic scientist cannot change
skepticism and mistrust single-handedly. He can, however,
contribute to restoring faith in judicial processes by using
science and technology in the search for truth in civil,
criminal, and regulatory matters.
The forensic scientist is entirely responsible for the work he
performs; no one else can write his report nor testify to his
opinion. However, it takes teamwork to solve a crime. Scientists
work closely with police officers, sheriff's deputies,
prosecuting and defense attorneys, DEA, CIA, and FBI agents,
immigration workers, and crime scene investigators, to name a
few.
There is a strong requirement for accurate record keeping,
chain-of-custody documentation, stringent quality control, and
data management. Chain-of-custody guarantees that the integrity
of evidence is maintained at all times. The time, date,
location, and signature are required when transporting a piece
of evidence within the laboratory or to an outside facility.
Ethics
The forensic scientist, no matter where or by whom he is
employed, works only for truth. He must make sure that the
examination is complete, the tests performed are done
correctly, the interpretation of the data is thorough, the
written report is correct and easily understood by a
non-scientist, and the testimony is complete and truthful.
Anything less is not acceptable.
Testimony
Testimony is the verbal statement of a witness, under oath, to
the trier of fact, that is, the judge and/or jury. The ordinary
witness can testify only on the basis of personal knowledge of a
situation gained through the use of his five senses. He may not
express opinions formed on any other basis. The forensic
scientist, on the other hand, can testify not only on the basis
of personal knowledge, but also in the form of opinion based on
his informed evaluation of the evidence presented and
scientific tests performed and interpreted within the bounds of
his skills, experience, and ability. He is an "expert" witness
as opposed to an ordinary or "fact" witness.
There are four criteria that are generally required to qualify a
person as an expert witness. They are: educational degrees
received, number of years of occupational experience in the
field, membership in professional organizations, and
professional articles or books that the person has published.
The forensic scientist, as an expert witness, must be able to
explain complex chemical reactions, the working of scientific
instruments, or medical conditions in simple everyday language
understandable to anyone, not scientific jargon or
"gobbledegook." This is not easy. It is so difficult that before
a new scientist is allowed to testify, a mock court is held so
the scientist can learn how it feels to testify, and how to
convert his hard-earned scientific knowledge into simple terms.
The forensic scientist must be impartial and unbiased. The
forensic scientist must tell all of the truth, "the whole
truth," no matter what it is or whom it hurts or helps. An
expert opinion can be offered only if there are scientific facts
upon which to base it.
In court, the work of the forensic scientist is carefully
examined to find any flaws, whether in the test performed, the
interpretation of the results, or the science upon which opinion
is based. Whether the forensic scientist "expert" is hired by
the prosecution or defense, the opposing attorney will try to
undermine or discredit testimony which is against his client.
The forensic witness must be qualified and knowledgeable of both
his special area of scientific knowledge and expertise and the
rules of evidence that govern the admissibility of opinions and
conclusions.
The forensic scientist often spends long hours testifying
clearly and concisely in judicial proceedings concerning
scientific information and what it means. Throughout he must
maintain a posture of impartial professionalism.
"If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of
science.
You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to convict
or save — you must bear testimony within the limits of science."
— Dr. P.C.H. Brouardel
19th Century French Medico-legalist
What's
A Forensic Scientist?
A forensic scientist is first a scientist. When
he applies his scientific knowledge to assist juries, attorneys,
and judges in understanding science, he is a forensic scientist.
Forensic scientists are thinkers, good with details, good with
putting pieces of a puzzle together, and curious. Some
scientists work in laboratories and some also go out to places
where crimes are committed (crime scenes). Others teach in
colleges and universities.
How Do I Become a Forensic Scientist?
You will need:
• a bachelor's degree — get one in science; some forensic
sciences require
advanced degrees; take chemistry, biology, math, and English composition
• good speaking skills — take public speaking, join the drama
club,
toastmasters, the debate team
• good note-taking skills — you can't subscribe to a service or
depend on
Cliffs Notes in real life!
• the ability to write an understandable scientific report
• intellectual curiosity
• personal integrity
How Much Money Will I Make?
Income in the forensic sciences varies greatly depending upon
your degree, your actual job, where you work, and how many hours
you work. You may never "get rich" but you will have a good
income. You will be satisfied with your job, knowing you are
contributing to justice — keeping the good guys on the street
and helping put the bad guys in jail. Forensic scientists work
different hours, depending upon what they do. Some work in
forensic laboratories and work 40 hours a week, Monday through
Friday. Others work out in the field on digs and may work
different hours. Still others are "on call" and work after their
regular shift and receive overtime or compensatory (comp) time.
Essentially every branch or forensic science offers opportunity
for personal growth, career advancement, and increasing
financial compensation.
Where Will I Work?
Forensic scientists work in laboratories, at crime scenes, in
offices, and in morgues. They may work for federal, state and
local government, forensic laboratories, medical examiners
offices, hospitals, universities, toxicology laboratories,
police departments, medical examiner/coroner offices, or as
independent forensic science consultants.
Disaster Mortuary Operations Response Team (DMORT)
DMORT is a branch of the Federal Emergency Management
Association (FEMA). Teams are sent on an "as needed" basis to
mass disasters or large criminal cases. Members are sent for two
weeks to any destination in the world and may extend their time
as needed. DMORT is used to assist already existing forensic
teams.
Kinds
of Forensic Science: Disciplines Within the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences
The American Academy of Forensic Sciences, the
largest forensic science organization in the world, is composed
of nearly 6,000 scientists organized into eleven sections
representing the different areas of interest, activity,
education, and expertise of individual members. Each of the
following sections will be reviewed in alphabetical order:
• Criminalistics
• Digital & Multimedia Sciences
• Engineering Sciences
• General
• Jurisprudence
• Odontology
• Pathology/Biology
• Physical Anthropology
• Psychiatry & Behavioral Science
• Questioned Documents
• Toxicology
Criminalistics
"Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as silent evidence against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen that he deposits or collects - all these and more bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical evidence cannot be wrong; it cannot perjure itself; it cannot be wholly absent. Only its interpretation can err. Only human failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its value."
— Paul L. Kirk, PhD
“Father of Criminalistics”
Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police
Laboratory Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, NY 1953 Chapter 1, page
4.
Test
firing of a weapon in the Firearms
Section of a forensic lab.
Scope of Work
Criminalists analyze, compare, identify, and interpret physical
evidence. Forensic labs have two primary functions: 1)
identifying evidence, and 2) linking suspect, victim, and crime
scene through physical evidence. The main role of the
criminalist is to objectively apply the techniques of the
physical and natural sciences to examine physical evidence.
Physical evidence may be anything: evidence so small that a
microscope is needed to see it, or as large as a truck. It may
be as subtle as a whiff of a flammable gas at an arson scene or
as obvious as a pool of blood at a homicide scene. The enormous
range of material challenges the ingenuity of the criminalist
who examines and identifies hair, fibers, blood, seminal and
body fluid stains, alcohol, drugs, paint, glass, botanicals,
soil, flammables, and safe insulating material; restores smeared
or smudged markings; and identifies firearms and compares
bullets, tool markings, and foot prints. In most cases, the
amount of the evidence to be tested is very small, such as a
drop of blood, a hair, or a piece of glass.
Using analytical skill and practical experience, the criminalist
separates important evidence from that having little or no
value. Next, the criminalist sorts, compares, and identifies the
evidence, using chemicals and instruments, developing useful
information for an investigation or trial. He may find, for
example, that a bullet has been fired from a particular gun, the
blood in the suspect's car is from the victim, or that a
fragment of plastic from the scene of a hit-and-run accident has
broken off a particular car. These types of analyses are
difficult; they require an eye for detail, a broad practical
scientific background, and the ability to apply these skills in
the laboratory.
Scientist
in forensic laboratory keeping the
bench area meticulously clean.
Forensic scientist
microscopically examining evidence.
Perhaps the most important task of the criminalist lies in
interpreting the results of the tests to determine the truth.
This may be the circumstances at the time a crime occurred, or
may support a witness' statement. Reconstructing the events of a
crime is often very difficult. It requires an understanding of
human behavior, of the physical laws and processes involved, and
the recognition of how they interact. Finally, any findings must
be conveyed to the other parts of the criminal justice system,
such as officers and attorneys. This is done by written reports
and expert testimony. The criminalist must express conclusions
so that technical details are understood by the non-scientist
jury, attorneys, and judges.
Trace Analytical System used to
examine evidence.
Education and Training
The minimum requirement is a bachelor's degree in chemistry,
biology, physics, molecular biology, or a related science. In
the future, a master’s degree may be required. Many colleges and
universities offer degrees and courses in forensic science. In
deciding whether to get a degree in chemistry or biology, or one
in forensic science, study the courses offered. At least 24
semester hours of either chemistry or biology is required and
math is a must. The title of the degree is not as important as
the courses taken.
To keep up with the many advances in science, the criminalist
must take continuing education courses all during his career. By
passing a very tough examination, the criminalist may become
certified by the American Board of Criminalistics (www.criminalistics.com).
Entire forensic laboratories may prove their competence by
becoming accredited by organizations such as the American
Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation
Board (www.ascld-lab.org).
Scientist
preparing swabs for DNA testing.
Scientist
examining a sheet for biological and trace evidence.
Career Opportunities
Criminalists work in forensic laboratories in police
departments, sheriff's offices, district attorney's offices,
regional and state agencies, medical examiners' offices, private
companies, colleges and universities, and for federal agencies
such as the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), Federal Bureau of
Identification (FBI), United States Postal Service (USPS),
Secret Service (SS), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the
military forces, and the United States Fish and Wildlife
Services. Criminalists assist the United States Department of
Justice in helping other countries create or update forensic
services.
The criminalist may start as a bench scientist after graduating
from college and, through education and dedication, work his way
up to forensic laboratory director. There are many opportunities
to teach at community colleges and universities. As science
advances, more criminalists will be needed to perform new tests
in an ever-expanding field of evidence.
One of the newest areas of criminalists is wildlife
forensics. Poaching violations, the development of state
and federal hunting regulations, the Endangered Species Act of
1973, and the United National Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species (CITIES) are some of the factors which
helped create this new field.
The major difference between criminal forensic science and
wildlife forensic science is that the victim (and occasionally
the suspect) is an animal.
The identification of wildlife evidence, however, can be more
complicated than human science in that wildlife enforcement
officers rarely seize whole animals, which can be readily
identified by a museum or zoo expert. They will more typically
confiscate parts and products of these animals as evidence. The
problem then is that the characteristics which define an animal
species are rarely present in those parts or products.
Pelts and skins from endangered
animals.
Wildlife forensic scientists are often required to develop new
ways to identify species through research with carefully
documented known specimens before they can examine evidence in a
case and testify in court. An additional complication is that,
while human forensics deals with only a single species (homo
sapiens), wildlife forensic scientists must be prepared to
identify evidence from any species in the world that is
illegally killed, smuggled, poached, or sold on an illicit
market. Examples of wildlife evidence items might be blood on an
illegal hunter's clothing; fresh, frozen, or smoked meats; loose
hair; fur coats; reptile leather products, such as purses,
belts, and shoes; loose feathers and down; carved ivory objects;
sea turtle oil (suntan lotion); shell jewelry; and powdered
rhinoceros horn.
While it might seem that wildlife forensic scientists face an
overwhelming task in developing new and reliable ID techniques,
they do have one advantage over other forensic scientists:
sample size is rarely a problem. Example seizures of wildlife
evidence have included 20,000 pounds of suspected sea turtle
meat, 10,000 pounds of ivory, and 300,000 suspected rhinoceros
horn pills.
Illegal items made from ivory.
Suggested Additional Reading:
Saferstein R., Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic
Science, 7th Edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall)
2001.
Inman, K. and Rudin, N., Principles and Practices of
Criminalistics (New York, NY: CRC Press) 2001.
Digital & Multimedia Sciences
The advent of digital photography with its potential to aid in
the documentation of crime scenes and injuries, as well as to
speed up all aspects of photography from mug shots to autopsy,
creates an important area of research and development. Such
photographs present many challenges and the burdens of easy
alteration must be balanced with the benefits of speed and
economy. These issues extend to the computer imaging of crime
scenes, suspect composites, and victim characteristics for
possible identification. The reliability and scientific accuracy
of computer recreations of crime scene events also remains an
area for much-needed research.
There are several specialties in Digital & Multimedia Sciences.
Digital & Multimedia Sciences professionals help develop the
scientific foundations for the practice of digital forensics,
including research and publication, or they may manage digital
forensic laboratories.
The forensic sciences utilize multitudes of instruments,
chemical tests, measuring devices, and numerous specialty tools
to assist in forensic examinations. Laboratory accreditation is
a mechanism for achieving quality assurance. Digital evidence
examinations require very specific hardware and software tools
to find numerous types of latent digital evidence. Digital
forensic laboratories that are accredited require annual
proficiency tests, like all other forensic specialties.
Examiners, depending upon their specialties, may discover and
prove facts concerning the following:
• Digital device examinations
• Network analysis
• Examination and comparison of digitized numerals, images, and
analog/digital
audio and video (which includes examinations such as authenticity,
photogrammetry and enhancement)
The work of the examiner might address some of the following
questions:
• What files have been deleted from the digital device?
• Can a timeline of activity be established on this system?
• What other digital devices have been connected to this system?
• Was this system attacked or modified by someone over the
network?
• Can a remote system or user be located or identified?
• What sites on the internet were visited by this system?
• Was this audio recording altered?
• Can this video recording be enhanced to help identify someone?
• Can the physical characteristics of an object in a photograph
be determined?
Photographic analysis using photogrammetry.
Media analysis of a computer can recover
deleted files.
Video Analysis to enhance an image.
Tape recordings and digital voice identification protocols,
acoustic and speech analysis continues to be an evolving area of
research and application. With capacities to disguise voices by
off-the-shelf technology, the investigation of underlying
acoustic patterns has become one of many important areas of both
technological and linguistic research.
Computer forensics has become important because recent
intrusions to gain or corrupt information in other computer
systems by criminals using computer technology to support their
activities has become a major crime activity.
Education and Training
Candidates for an apprenticeship program in digital and
multimedia sciences should possess a minimum of a bachelor’s
degree, preferably in computer science, information technology,
or engineering. In the United States, there are degree programs
with emphasis in digital forensics or computer forensics, as
well as some graduate degree and graduate certificate programs.
Digital forensic examiners have various types of certifications.
A certified professional not only possesses technical
competencies but also adheres to a strong code of ethics.
Career Opportunities
Digital forensic examiners are employed in both the public and
private sector. Private practice consultants can be found in
most major cities. Many large police organizations, as well as
most state and federal law enforcement agencies, generally
employ digital forensic experts. Scientists who specialize in
the field of digital & multimedia sciences work or practice in
the following forensic areas: computer-related crime
investigator, computer specialist, image enhancement specialist,
speech scientist (voice identification, enhancement of
recordings, validation and authentication of transcripts and/or
recordings). Many qualified practitioners are members of the
International Association of Computer Investigative Specialists
(www.iacis.com), the High
Technology Crime Investigation Association (www.htcia.org),
the International Society of Forensic Computer Examiners (www.isfce.com),
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) (www.ieee.org),
and other professional groups and societies.
Audio analysis of a sound sample.
Engineering Sciences
Innovation and problem-solving are key traits of an
engineer. An engineer applies the principles of mathematics and science for
many purposes. The forensic engineer applies the art and science of
engineering to the purpose of the law. Most requests for services involve
civil suits. However, the forensic engineer may also assist in the
prosecution or defense of criminal or regulatory matters.
Scope of Work
Questions posed to forensic engineers are in subjects as varied as the
specialties of the engineers themselves. Typical subjects include: failure
analysis, accident reconstruction, causes and origins of fires or
explosions, design review, quality evaluation of construction or
manufacturing, maintenance procedures, and environment definition. The
scopes may range from entire communication networks or transportation
systems to the molecular composition or grain structure of a specific
component. Structures examined may range from skyscrapers, aircraft, or
bridges to surgical implants or bones. Conclusions are applied in personal
injury litigation, construction claims, contract or warranty disputes,
patent or copyright infringements, criminal, and regulatory matters.
Some questions the engineer may be asked to answer are:
• Why did the vehicle roll over?
• How could the accident have happened?
• Why did the airplane crash?
• Why did the building collapse?
• Did defects exist?
Forensic engineers on-site
investigating an accident.
In most legal disputes involving engineering issues, each party
will hire its own engineer(s) for consultation and to testify on
its behalf. In other words, the forensic engineer's work is
subject to the scrutiny of other highly qualified professionals.
Education and Training
Forensic engineering is a specialized practice of the
engineering sciences. Few universities offer courses in
forensic engineering; therefore, the forensic engineer must
develop his own credentials. The minimum education required is a
bachelor's degree in engineering or an allied science. However,
it is recommended that the forensic engineer have an advanced
degree, when appropriate, and be a registered professional
engineer. The forensic engineer must be highly competent,
ethical, credible, and should have extensive professional
experience in the subject matter under consideration. Other
essential capabilities include writing and speaking skills, as
well as evidence handling techniques. Knowledge and
understanding of legal procedures and standards of proof are
definite advantages. Active participation in professional
organizations and continuing education are highly recommended.
Inspecting a product for
design defect is just one of the many
applications called upon by the forensic engineer.
Career Opportunities
Forensic engineers may be employees of large corporations or
government agencies. However, most forensic engineers are
employed by small firms or are self-employed. Some perform their
forensic services on a part-time basis or in addition to their
other work (e.g., a college professor providing forensic
engineering consultations). The competent, ethical, credible,
and professional forensic engineer is in high demand now and
will be in the foreseeable future.
General
"There is literally no end to the number of disciplines
that become ‘forensic’ by definition. Nor is there an
end in sight to the number of present or future specialties
that may become forensic. The examples are many."
— Anthony Longhetti, BA
Past-President, AAFS
Editorial, Journal of Forensic Sciences
1983;28:3-5
The General Section is the home of newly emerging forensic
scientific specialties, and for those established areas of
forensic science not fitting the more narrow definitions or
membership requirements of the other sections, or those forensic
specialists whose numbers are not sufficient to support a
separate section.
Scope of Work
Members of the General Section include scientists with forensic
specialties in the scientific areas of laboratory
investigation, field investigation, clinical work,
communication, computer investigation, education, research, and
other emerging forensic science disciplines. These scientists
are employed or practicing in the following areas of forensic
activity: administrator, accountant, archaeologist, artist/
sculptor (including facial reconstruction), aviation accident
investigator, ballistics analyst (ammunition performance and
wound interpretation), forensic consultant, coroner
(non-pathologist), crime scene investigator, medico-legal
investigator, educator (potentially all forensic areas), marine
biologist, nurse examiner, photographer, polygraph examiner,
radiologist, researcher, rehabilitation specialist, and social
worker - forensic applications.
Forensic skull
reconstructionist sculpting a person's
skull to depict a close creation of the look of the
person for identification purposes.
New areas of forensic study result from a combination of unique
problems faced by investigators and advances in natural and
social sciences. Many of the well-established disciplines in the
forensic sciences were nurtured in and emerged from the General
Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences.
Ecological awareness brings the investigation of crime relating
to the various aspects of hazardous waste, illegal dumping, and
other such crimes against the environment to those with
expertise in areas such as the forensic marine sciences, and
many other sciences applied to environmental issues. Ecological
crime involves some notion of gain, quite often financial in
nature.
The development of sophisticated accounting software for the
general public has lead to increases in both accounting errors and outright
fraud. To help unearth the details of financial schemes, money laundering, and
digital fraud on the Internet, an important area of investigation involving
forensic accounting has been developed.
Education and Experience
All members of the General Section must have at least a
bachelor's degree. Many of the disciplines represented require a
master’s or doctorate degree. Work experience requirements vary
with educational levels.
Career Opportunities
Many of the
forensic scientists within the General Section work for colleges, universities,
government agencies, police agencies (State, City, and local agencies), federal
agencies (such as DEA, ATF, and FBI), and criminal investigation arms of the
U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force, and their support laboratories. Others work for
coroners, medical examiners, hospitals, and District Attorney's offices. Private
companies and independent forensic specialists are consultants to both the
prosecution or defense. Income is dependent on specialty and geographical area
and generally is increasing for the well-trained forensic scientist. Career
advancements are available in many agencies and are dependent on the discipline.
Almost all agencies that support forensic science personnel provide opportunity
for continuing in-service training, and many offer additional advanced
training.
As crime continues to evolve with technology and society, forensic
scientists will be challenged and will respond to the investigative demands by
applying established technologies and, where necessary, developing new ones.
These emerging forensic science disciplines will continue to be of vital
importance to the courts and society in general.
Forensic radiologist interpreting
x-rays for case preparation.
Jurisprudence
Forensic is defined by Black's Law Dictionary as
"belonging to courts of justice." Forensic science is the
application of science to assist courts in resolving questions
of fact in criminal and civil trials. At the dawn of the new
millennium, however, the jurisprudence of forensics applies a
definition more broad than that of "forensic science."
Definitions of "science" are themselves under scrutiny by
attorneys in courts of justice, and many areas of forensic
science — defined by the law of evidence as "technical or other
specialized knowledge" — are being evaluated by the courts under
different standards of reliability. In this historical context,
"forensic science" may generally be defined as the application
of "scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge" to
assist courts in resolving questions of fact in civil and
criminal trials.
Scope of Work
Attorneys for the prosecution and the defense, as well as the
judge, are lawyers. They are the main players in the drama of
the courtroom. The lawyer who uses expert testimony in criminal
and civil cases must be knowledgeable of the law that governs
the admissibility of forensic evidence, and qualified to apply
this law to present and challenge forensic evidence in
depositions and court proceedings. The judge must understand all
the issues and make sure of the legality of the entire process.
Although each deposition and court appearance is a unique
experience, forensic witnesses may reasonably expect that direct
and cross-examination will cover at least a few key areas. The
lawyer may make a threshold inquiry into the field of
specialization in which the witness claims to be an expert,
reliability of that field of knowledge for judicial purposes,
and the witness' qualifications in that field. This inquiry may
address any and all formal education the witness has — or has
not — completed. Education in the area of specialized knowledge
in which the witness claims to be proficient will be most
relevant. Any publications or other educational materials
authored or edited by the witness and others in the field may be
reviewed and addressed to either support or challenge the
witness' opinions and conclusions. Professional or technical
training in the area of specialization, the witness' performance
in that training, and certifications or other credentials
related to the areas of specialization, may also be addressed.
The witness' experience in the field of specialized knowledge
may also be covered, together with any issues related to the
witness' competent performance in the field. The witness'
performance at work — including written and oral performance
evaluations, disciplinary proceedings, and any other evidence
relevant to the witness' experience — may be scrutinized.
Testimony of the witness in other court proceedings may also be
addressed if it may be used to undermine the reliability or
validity of the witness' opinion in the case at hand.
Direct examination by the lawyer who retained the witness will
progress in a manner that allows the witness to favorably state
the witness' education, training, and experience in the witness'
field of specialized knowledge; the facts of the case on which
the witness relied in preparing any reports, summaries, or
formulating any opinions for the case; any theories, techniques,
methods, or procedures applied by the witness in understanding
and interpreting the facts; and any conclusions or opinions the
witness may have reached as a result of this process. Direct
examination is typically a smooth, comfortable exposition of the
witness' qualifications, reasoning, and opinion.
Cross-examination by opposing counsel is typically more
challenging. The primary goal of cross-examination is to
identify any weaknesses that may undermine the relevance,
reliability, and/or validity of the witness' evidence.
Weaknesses will be sought in the witness' qualifications,
knowledge of the scope, limits, validity, and reliability of the
witness' area of specialization, application of the area of
specialized knowledge to the facts of the case, and/or
relevance of the evidence to the issues in the case.
Courtroom
testimony of an expert witness
explaining findings in a case.
Education and Training
Members of the Jurisprudence Section must possess a law degree
and have passed a bar examination to practice law in one or more
states. Continuing education is mandatory for the attorney to
keep current in new issues. Judges are attorneys who have been
appointed or elected to the bench. They, too, must take
continuing education courses to continue to be qualified.
Career Opportunities
Attorneys may be employed in a variety of areas by a variety of
organizations. Some are in private practice; others work in
District Attorney's offices, State's Attorney's offices, Public
Defender's offices or for the Federal Government. Some are
employed by large private companies; still others teach in
colleges and universities. Hours of work and income are
dependent on geographical area and place of employment,
experience, status and reputation, and type of practice.
Odontology
Forensic dentistry (odontology) is a vital
branch of forensic science that involves the application of
dental science to the identification of unknown human remains
and bite marks, using both physical and biological dental
evidence.
Scope of Work
Forensic dentists deal with a range of medicolegal problems.
Identification of the human remains of natural disasters,
terrorist activities, and missing and unknown persons is a
central activity (http://ag.ca.gov/missing/content/mups.php).
This may involve participation in autopsy examinations at the
request of law enforcement, coroners, or medical examiners at
the local or state level. The postmortem dental examination of
human remains usually involves charting dental and cranial
features, radiographic (x-ray) documentation of these features,
and forensic report writing regarding these findings. A second
step is the application of these findings to investigations by
law enforcement to identify the missing or unknown person.
Dental identification plays a particularly important role in the
identification of victims of catastrophic events where there are
massive numbers of casualties such as airplane crashes (Pan Am
flight 103 and American Airlines flight 587), fires, floods,
earthquakes, or terrorist attacks (Oklahoma City Federal
Building and the World Trade Center).
The identification of unknown persons may start at a disaster or
crime scene or during the autopsy examination at the request of
law enforcement, coroners, or medical examiners at the local or
state level. Using both physical and biological dental evidence
(a complete or fragmented jaw or a few teeth), the postmortem
examination consists of a visual examination and x-rays.
Information gathered during this examination along with cranial
features, if available, is documented in a written report. This
information is either used by law enforcement to assist in the
investigation and/or coded into a computer identification
program that contains both antemortem (before death) and
postmortem (after death) dental records (www.winid.com).
The computer compares these records in an attempt to match the
unknown with known samples, records, or photographs.
Another important area of forensic dentistry is bite mark
analysis in cases of assault, rape, and/or homicide. This is
demanding work with rigorous standards requiring special
training and experience. Inexperienced odontologists usually
consult senior odontologists to serve as mentors when embarking
on actual casework.
During bite mark analysis, the odontologist also may collect
trace salivary evidence for later DNA profiling and matching.
Digital imaging methods may be used in comparing dental evidence
from a homicide suspect.
Another activity is injury analysis that determines the presence
and extent of dental injuries or physical neglect in an adult,
children, and elderly abuse cases.
Odontologists also give expert testimony in civil litigation
involving dental issues such as personal injury law, workers
compensation, professional malpractice, and disputes regarding
aspects of the dentist/patient relationship.
Two dental
radiographs. Left is taken after death;
right is before death. The metal crown and dental
structures have similar outlines.
Education and Training
It is vital that a person interested in forensic odontology be
properly educated and trained. A Doctor of Dental Science (DDS)
degree is a basic; however, a traditional dental education does
not provide the curriculum and experience that is required to
function in this field. There are also opportunities for other
dental professionals in the field as well.
The American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) is the forum for
forensic dental lectures, demonstrations, and practical courses
that are valuable educational experiences. The AAFS affiliated
American Board of Forensic Odontology (www.abfo.org)
serves as the highly regarded credentialing body for dentists
who have satisfied experience and training requirements to sit
for the challenging ABFO examination.
The American Society of Forensic Odontology (www.asfo.org)
meets annually at the AAFS Annual Meeting. The Armed Forces
Institute of Pathology offers week-long dental courses in
odontology and pathology. The University of Texas, San Antonio
provides a biennial program and a forensic dentistry fellowship
program. The New York Society of Forensic Dentistry and the New
York County Dental Society offer introductory courses in
Forensic Odontology (www.nycdentalsociety.org).
Post-graduate master's and PhD education is available in Canada
(www.boldlab.org) and
teaching institutions in Europe and Australia. Basic courses in
forensic science and medicolegal death investigation are
strongly recommended as specialized knowledge is necessary to
participate in forensic investigations.
The objective of these courses and advanced training is to
prepare the dental investigator to conduct thorough scientific
and systematic scene investigations through use of approved
techniques and methods. The best training will come from working
with an experienced odontologist in a real situation.
Career Opportunities
There are many opportunities for forensic
odontologists to have formal appointments or consulting
relationships with coroners, medical examiners offices, state
and local government agencies, and branches of the military.
Reimbursement is on a fee-for-service or contractual basis.
Private consultations are possible with insurance companies and
legal firms.
It is common for court qualified forensic odontologists to
testify in criminal and civil courtrooms. Expert testimony in
civil and criminal litigation involves dental issues such as
personal injury law, workers compensation, professional
malpractice, disputes regarding aspects of the dentist-patient
relationship, and identification of bite marks in criminal
cases. Once a commitment is made to enter this field, the dental
investigator needs to be current in the most accurate methods
available, be aware of ethical values and conflicts, and possess
the dedication to render assistance in a timely and professional
manner.
Computer generated outline of
teeth placed onto
digital picture of a
human bite
mark.
Digital close-up image of the bite edges of a suspect's teeth
placed next to injury pattern seen in bite mark.
Pathology/Biology
Although forensic pathologists cannot perform
all of the miracles seen on television shows such as "Quincy,"
"Law and Order," and “Crossing Jordan," it is an interesting and
exciting field and is becoming a more popular and competitive
career choice.
Pathology is a medical specialty — the study of disease.
Pathologists study disease by performing a type of surgery
called an autopsy and examining the tissues removed, and by
observing surgically removed specimens under the microscope.
Analysis of fluids taken from the body, such as blood or urine,
also provides information about disease to the pathologist.
Forensic pathology is the application of the principles of
pathology, and of medicine in general, to the legal needs of
society.
Forensic pathologists perform autopsies to determine what caused
a person's death. They are also involved in the investigation of
the circumstances surrounding the death. Knowing about these
circumstances allows them to determine the manner of death —
natural, accident, suicide, homicide, or undetermined.
Forensic
histotechnologist preparing tissue
for microscopic slide examination.
Although there is much emphasis on violent deaths (deaths due to
homicide, accident, or suicide), forensic pathologists also
investigate sudden deaths of apparently healthy individuals
(those not currently being treated for a disease which could
account for the sudden death), the death of someone who has
never seen a doctor (unattended), deaths occurring in police
custody, suspicious or unusual deaths, deaths that may be the
result of surgical or diagnostic procedure which could be a
therapeutic misadventure, or some deaths which occur in public
institutions. The law of the specific jurisdiction where the
death occurs determines which deaths must be reported to the
medical examiner (often a forensic pathologist) or, in some
states, the coroner. Then it is the responsibility of the
medical examiner or coroner to determine if an autopsy is
necessary to determine the cause and manner of death.
Attending and resident
pathologists at
weekly Neuropathology Conference.
Scope of Work
The forensic pathologist's involvement and investigation may
include visiting the scene of death. Forensic pathologists and/
or their investigators gather information concerning what
happened at the time of death, what the person was doing at the
time, and the medical history of the person.
The forensic examination of a body includes examining the
clothing on the body, the body itself, and an internal
examination of the organs, which is the autopsy. The body is
usually photographed and diagramed, with a detailed written
report describing any injuries or disease process. The autopsy
usually includes microscopic examination of the tissues of the
body. X-rays may also be taken to look for bullets, broken
bones, or other abnormalities.
The forensic pathologist works with other branches of the
forensic sciences. The forensic pathologist may collect evidence
from the body such as blood and hairs in an assault case, swabs
for examination for semen in rape cases, and fibers from the
decedent's clothing and body. These are sent to the forensic
laboratory for examination by a criminalist — a scientist
trained in the collection and examination of physical evidence.
The forensic pathologist also collects specimens, such a blood,
urine, bile, as well as stomach contents and body tissues, for
toxicology analysis. The toxicologist looks for the presence of
alcohol, drugs, and other chemicals or poisons in these
specimens. If bullets, shotgun pellets, or wadding are recovered
at autopsy, they are also sent to the forensic laboratory for
examination. A firearms examiner analyzes these specimens and is
often able to match them to a specific gun.
Forensic pathologists also work to identify unknown deceased
persons by way of medical information, dental records, and other
peculiarities of an individual. If the body has deteriorated to
a skeleton, forensic pathology may determine the race or sex of
the individual. Forensic pathologists are often assisted by
forensic odontologists (dentists) and physical anthropologists.
Examination of the deceased may reveal whether the person
received injuries, also called trauma, both prior to (antemortem),
and after (postmortem) death, as well as which changes to the
body occurred as a result of decomposition after death.
Each type of injury (gunshot, blunt force, sharp force, et al.)
often can be recognized by a distinctive pattern. Forensic
pathologists are trained to recognize these patterns and thereby
determine the cause and manner of death. Injury patterns are
especially important in cases of child abuse or infanticide (the
killing of children) and in elder abuse.
Autopsy findings must correlate with the other known physical
and circumstantial evidence. Oftentimes, examination of the body
may reveal that the victim died in a distant location and in a
very different position from the situation in which the body was
actually found. The forensic pathologist's opinions and the
autopsy results are vital components of any medico-legal death
investigation. The forensic pathologist must maintain accurate
and unbiased written and photographic records. His work may lead
either to the conviction of the guilty or the exoneration of the
innocent.
A little known aspect of forensic pathology is the role this
science plays in the areas of public health and disease and
injury prevention. Epidemic disease recognition and control as
well as observance of faulty consumer product design, which may
cause disease or injury, are of utmost importance not only to
the forensic pathologist, but society as a whole. In addition,
genetic disorders common to a particular family may be
identified and reported to those affected.
An emerging role of the forensic pathologist is that of clinical
forensic pathology. Patterns of injury are not only visible when
persons are deceased; they can be recognized in living patients
in emergency rooms and clinics. This is especially critical in
cases of child and elder abuse. The interpretation of these
injuries is invaluable to police or other law enforcement
officials in a criminal investigation.
The forensic pathologist must always be willing to reach out to
bereaved families as well as to communicate with other
physicians, attorneys, and law enforcement officers in an effort
to provide all those who have need, with proper, accurate, and
timely information. Assistance to those who are left to deal
with the loss and trauma surrounding the death of a human being
is the reason for the work of the forensic pathologist.
Forensic pathologists
microscopically examining
autopsy slides for signs of disease and trauma.
Education and Training
All forensic pathologists are medical doctors. Therefore, the
training requirements involve many years of studious effort.
After four years of college and four years of medical school, an
apprenticeship in pathology, known as a residency, is required.
Forensic pathology is a subspecialty of pathology, so an
additional one or two-year fellowship — specifically in forensic
pathology — must then be completed after college, medical
school, internship, and pathology residency. Certification in
pathology or one of its several subspecialties is acquired from
The American Board of Pathology.
Other physicians with MD or DO degrees or scientists with a PhD
degree in a biological-related field may also qualify for
membership in the Pathology/Biology Section of the AAFS.
Career Opportunities
Forensic pathologists are usually employed by city, county or
state medical examiners' offices, hospitals, and federal
government agencies, such as the Center for Disease Control
(CDC) and the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP).
Physical Anthropology
The next time you read in the newspaper or hear
on the radio or TV that a body or skeleton has been found, it is
likely that a forensic anthropologist will be contacted to
identify it. Forensic anthropologists are also called to
identify individuals killed in disasters such as plane crashes,
explosions, fires, and other tragedies resulting in the loss of
life and mutilation of bodies.
In this society, identification of the dead is important for
many reasons. The initial step in homicide investigations is
usually determining the identity of the victim. This not only
concerns relatives of the deceased, but also judicial
authorities who need to know whether someone is alive or dead so
that wills can be read, estates settled, second marriages can be
contracted, and so forth. Law enforcement agencies need to know
if recovered bones are human or non-human. If they are human and
of recent origin, the individual must be identified, and the
cause of death and time elapsed since death need to be
determined. If they are old, human bones, perhaps a burial
ground has been uncovered.
Anthropologists
using a
metal
detector for recovery of
materials
during crime scene
analysis.
Scope of Work
The scientist performing this task is usually a physical
anthropologist who has specialized in the study of human
skeletal biology. Physical anthropologists have a long
tradition of the study of human skeletal remains from ancient
societies. The techniques they have developed to determine sex,
age, ancestral background (race), health status, marks of trauma
and occupational stress, and stature in life also have proven
extremely useful in forensic sciences.
Forensic anthropologists are skilled in the identification of
skeletal materials. In addition to their efforts to document
age, sex, stature, race, and other characteristics of the
specimens under investigation, they are familiar with various
types of injuries and can work with forensic pathologists to
establish cause of death. Many forensic anthropologists have
training in archaeological methods and assist law enforcement
agencies in the initial investigations of crime scenes.
Anthropologists, with their naturalistic approach to recovery of
skeletons, examination of animal remains, and analysis of soil
and vegetation patterns, can successfully recover human remains
from different kinds of terrain; e.g., deserts, forests, river
systems, etc.
Some forensic anthropologists are skilled in the art of facial
reproduction which involves the modeling of how a face may have
appeared in the living subject for which the only surviving
evidence is a skull. Other forensic anthropologists have
developed skills in the determination of time elapsed since
death by examining insect remains (entomology) and states of
body decompositions.
Skeletal
remains are x-rayed and studied to
provide additional information as to who the
Person was and possibly the cause of death.
Education and Training
Forensic anthropologists usually earn a PhD in anthropology with
an emphasis on the study of human osteology and anatomy. The
course of study will vary, but each person is broadly trained in
physical or biological anthropology with an emphasis in skeletal
biology. What sets forensic anthropologists apart from other
physical anthropologists is their research emphasis on issues
affecting contemporary human populations. It is necessary to
gain practical experience in forensic anthropology before court
systems will accept an individual as an expert witness in the
field.
The American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) was created
for the purpose of certifying experts in the field of forensic
anthropology as well as establishing a forum for all members of
the section who perform forensic anthropology services. For
Board certification, it is necessary to demonstrate practical
experience as judged by case reports that are submitted for
review. Also for Board certification, a PhD is required and a
written and practical examination must be passed. Requirements
for certification may be found at the ABFA website (www.theabfa.org).
Career Opportunities
Forensic anthropology is practiced nearly everywhere there are skeletons to be examined. Traditionally, forensic anthropologists worked out of their laboratories at major research institutions or universities. The U.S. Government has recently hired forensic anthropologists at the U.S. Army-Central Human Identification Laboratory for repatriation issues. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology - Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner employs a forensic anthropologist as a Deputy Chief Medical Examiner, and various state and local medical examiner offices use forensic anthropologists as medical investigators or administrators. Additionally, state and federal law enforcement agencies have hired physical anthropologists to act as special agents and laboratory personnel.
The field of forensic anthropology is an exciting and growing
one with many opportunities available to interested persons.
Students wishing to know more about this field should include in
their training programs courses in statistics, archaeological
recovery methods, human anatomy, and skeletal biology.
Psychiatry & Behavioral Science
A broad range of legal issues is addressed by forensic
psychologists and psychiatrists as they work with criminal and
civil cases and other areas such as family and domestic
relations law. In criminal law, such issues as competence (e.g.,
competency to stand trial and to testify, to waive legal
representation, or to be executed), and the assessment of mental
illness as it relates to diminished responsibility or innocence
by reason of mental illness or defect are the focus. Civil law
requires assessment of such issues as involuntary psychiatric
hospitalization, right to refuse treatment, competency to
participate in do-not resuscitate decisions, and disability
compensation among others. Issues in family and domestic
relations may include juvenile delinquency, child custody,
parental fitness, domestic abuse, adoption, and foster care.
Scope of Work
Given the scope of the practice, forensic psychiatrists and
psychologists often spend a significant amount of time
interfacing with lawyers and judges, and are trained in giving
expert testimony.
In organizing the components of a forensic psychiatry
assessment, a four-step series of questions is often used:
• What is the specific psychiatric-legal issue?
• What are the legal criteria that decide this issue?
• What are the relevant psychiatric-legal data?
• What is the reasoning process used to reach the concluding
opinion?
A single person may represent several different issues, each of
which may be addressed separately. For example, a defendant in a
criminal law case may be questioned about his criminal
responsibility for the offense, the validity of the confession
that he made to police officers, his competence to cooperate
with his attorney in his own defense, his capacity to abide by
the terms of probation if applied, and the likelihood of his
being dangerous if he were discharged to the community. Some of
these issues address the past (e.g., mental functioning and
behavior at the time of the alleged offense or at the time of
the confession), some issues address the present (competence to
cooperate with legal counsel), and some address the future
(abiding by the terms of probation). The data collected will
differ depending on whether the psychiatrist is addressing past,
present, or future mental functioning and behavior. One result
of the complex nature of these issues is that there is no such
thing as a general forensic psychiatric examination. There is
only a series of specific psychiatric-legal issues in each case.
Education and Training
Psychiatrists are medical doctors who have completed twelve
years of education between college, medical school, and
residency training in psychiatry. Forensic psychiatrists also
will have additional education and experience in areas relevant
for law.
Some forensic psychiatrists take an additional one or two years
of post-residency training in psychiatry-and-the-law. Others
pursue a career of independent study and on-the-job training.
The American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology certifies
competence in forensic psychiatry of those specialists who have
passed its special examinations in forensic psychiatry. There is
also an Accreditation Council on Fellowships in Forensic
Psychiatry that certifies the quality of post-residency
sub-specialty fellowship training programs.
Forensic psychologists major in behavioral science during their
four years of college, complete an additional one to two years
of training for a master's degree, and spend an additional four
to six years in graduate school to obtain a PhD in psychology.
Some psychologists take post-doctoral fellowship training in
forensic psychology. Some psychologists have independently
studied and obtained on-the-job-training in forensic psychology.
These specialists then apply to the American Board of
Professional Practice in Psychology for certification through
examination in the specialty of forensic psychology.
Career Opportunities
Forensic psychiatrists and forensic psychologists may be
employed in private practice, by city, county, and state
government, by hospitals, and by the federal government. They
work in a prison or state hospital setting for example, or have
their own private practice serving as consultants to a broad
range of organizations that may present with problems which
interface with psychiatry, the behavioral sciences, and the law.
Questioned Documents
The document examiner discovers and proves the
facts concerning documents and related material, such as ink,
paper, toner from a copier or fax, and ribbons, such as from a
typewriter. The bulk of the examiner's caseload rests upon
answering questions such as:
• Who wrote this?
• Is this a true signature?
• Has this document been altered?
• Are there additions and/or erasures on this check?
• Was this pen used to write this?
• Tell me about this paper.
Scope of Work
A document examiner may also be requested to
examine items on a document to establish the manufacturing
source, similarities or differences, first production date, or
date used (a most difficult task). This is done by using
chemical and/or physical analysis. Items to be examined may
include inks (writing, printing, stamp pad, ink jet and
typewriter), toners, pencil marks, erasure residues, correction
material, and paper. Most of these tasks require the use of a
good collection of known standards to which to compare. Often a
criminalist is called to assist.
Education and Training
Candidates for an apprenticeship program in
questioned documents should possess a minimum of a bachelor's
degree, preferably in one of the sciences. There are presently
no degree programs with emphasis in forensic document
examination available in the United States. Colleges and
universities offer questioned document or related courses as
part of criminal justice, forensic science, or criminalistics
degree programs. An apprenticeship program lasting approximately
two years under the direct supervision of a Full Member or
Fellow of the Questioned Documents Section of the AAFS, or a
member of the American Society of Questioned Document Examiners,
or one who is a Diplomate of the American Board of Questioned
Document Examiners, is required.
A close-up of the
hand-altered area of a check.
A comparison of the differences in typescript examinations.
A physical match of the paper
from a robbery
note that was left at the scene to a piece
of paper found in the suspect's car.
Career Opportunities
Forensic document examiners are employed in both the public and
private sectors. Private practice consultants can be found in
most major cities. Many large police organizations, as well as
most state and federal law enforcement agencies generally employ
forensic document experts. Many qualified practitioners are
members of the American Society of Questioned Examiners (www.asqde.org),
Southeastern Association of Forensic Document Examiners (www.safde.org),
and are certified by the American Board of Forensic Document
Examiners (www.abfde.org).
Toxicology
Toxicology is the study of harmful effects of
chemicals or drugs on living systems. Forensic toxicology is
that branch of toxicology that deals with the medico-legal
aspects of toxicology. Forensic toxicologists answer the
question, "Did prescription or illegal drugs and/or alcohol lead
or contribute to the person's death or intoxication?" Answering
this question often requires law enforcement officers, forensic
pathologists, forensic toxicologists, other forensic scientists,
and crime scene investigators to work together.
Figure 1: The information
triangle - A collaboration of input
and information from three areas: toxicology, pathology
and scene investigations. This can lead to the interpretation
of a cause and manner of death.
Scope of Work
There are several areas of specialization within the field, which offer a variety of career paths. One, postmortem toxicology, involves the determination of the contribution of drugs or other chemicals to the circumstances of the death. The forensic toxicology laboratory contributes a critical perspective to a death investigation, working with a forensic pathologist, and scene investigators, to determine which drug analyses or poisons are involved (Figure 1). This is accomplished by performing tests on body fluid and tissue samples received from the forensic pathologist, and then assisting with the interpretation of the findings. This effort requires knowledge of analytical chemistry techniques, including
instrument methods (Figure 2) utilizing gas and liquid chromatographic techniques, mass
spectrophotometry, UV-Visible spectrophotometry, flame emission and absorption spectrophotometric techniques, antigen-antibody immunoassay methods, as well as, traditional qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. An inquiring mind is required, along with the ability to apply knowledge of chemistry and pharmacology to solving real world puzzles.
(Figure 3).
Figure 2: Instrumental
automation as
exemplified by the automated sampler
which can extend the work day and lead
to increased case analysis and decreased
turnaround time.
Figure 3a: The ion
source in a mass
spectrophotometer. Gas chromatography/
mass spectrophotometry (GC/MS) is a
technology that represents a definitive means
of identifying the presence of a substance.
Other forensic toxicologists work with law enforcement agencies
in the investigation of crimes in which an individual's drug or
alcohol use is an element of the crime or may be a defense. This
involves the same application of techniques as in the death
investigation setting, but typically deals with lower
concentrations of drugs, requiring greater sensitivity of
testing. The interpretation of the test results in this area is
the greatest challenge, applying knowledge from clinical and
medical studies, and experience in the field, to give an opinion
about the affects of a drug or combination of drug on an
individual at the time of the crime or accident.
Workplace drug testing and forensic urine drug testing has
become an important aspect of employment and industries with
hazardous work conditions or jobs affecting the safety of
others. This aspect of forensic toxicology is usually confined
to the detection of specific drugs of abuse in a large number of
urine samples with some laboratories performing tests on over
10,000 urine samples each day. As with all of the forensic
environments, there is a strong emphasis of record keeping,
chain-of custody documentation, stringent quality control, and
data management. The challenge is to get the testing of such
large numbers done as reliably and efficiently as possible.
Developments in this area include the evaluation of specimens
other than blood or urine for drug testing, such as sweat, hair,
and saliva.
Forensic toxicology testing also contributes in other areas, as
varied as wildlife crimes involving the poisoning of animals,
the use of drugs to facilitate sexual assault, and drug use and
doping in human and animal sports. In all of the aspects of
forensic toxicology, the interpretation of the results is a
consistent challenge. The results obtained are determined by
tests that are complex and difficult for most juries and lawyers
to fully understand and appreciate. Therefore, the toxicologist
must have or develop the ability to describe the process
involved, the findings determined, and the relevant
interpretation derived in a straightforward and easily
understood manner.
Figure 3b: A
selective ion monitored (SIM) graphic taken
from a derivatized GC/MS analysis. From this
data
the presence of a specific drug metabolite,
6-acetylmorphine (6-AM), is confirmed to be present in an
acute heroin death. 6-AM is a drug metabolite
which specifically documents heroin use.
Education and Training
A bachelor's degree in a physical science including a solid
background in chemistry and coursework in pharmacology is an
ideal mix of educational qualifications for a toxicologist.
There are some graduate programs offering coursework in forensic
toxicology to the master's or PhD level
(click
here for info). Many enter toxicology after working in or
pursuing education in other areas such as medicinal chemistry,
pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, or clinical chemistry.
Membership in the section requires at least one year of
additional experience and work which meets other requirements of
scholarly production or advanced study. The American Board of
Forensic Toxicology and the Forensic Toxicology Certification
Board offer professional certification to scientists with work
experience in forensic toxicology.
Career Opportunities
This is an exciting field in which to interact with other
professionals and to work with different types of cases.
Forensic toxicologists work in police or law enforcement
laboratories, medical examiner laboratories, and workplace drug
testing laboratories. Other career opportunities exist in
hospitals, universities and industry laboratories, and with
agencies which monitor drug use in sports.
The Society of Forensic Toxicology (SOFT)(www.soft-tox.org)
is a leading professional society for toxicologists in the
United States. They maintain internet links to most major
professional societies and toxicologist Certification Boards.
The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists (www.tiaft.org)
is another excellent source of international reference
materials. These websites provide many additional details
concerning career opportunities in the field of toxicology.
Resource
List
AOAC International
www.aoac.org
American Academy of Forensic Sciences
www.aafs.org
American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law
www.aapl.org
American Board of Forensic Anthropology
www.theabfa.org
American Board of Criminalistics
www.criminalistics.com
American Board of Forensic Document Examiners, Inc.
www.asqde.org
American Board of Forensic Odontology
www.abfo.org
American Board of Forensic Psychology
www.abfp.com
American Board of Forensic Toxicology
www.abft.org
American Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators
www.slu.edu/organizations/abmdi
American Board of Pathology
www.abpath.org
American Institute of Forensic Education
www.educationforensic.com
American Society of Crime Lab Directors
www.ascld.org
American Society of Forensic Odontology
www.asfo.org
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners
www.asqde.org
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners
www.afte.org
Australian and New Zealand Forensic Science Society
http://anzfss-vic.blogspot.com
California Association of Toxicologists
www.Cal-tox.org
Canadian Society of Forensic Science
www.csfs.ca
Council on Forensic Science Education
www.criminology.fsu.edu/COFSE/default.html
Forensic DNA Consulting
www.forensicdna.com
Forensic Nurse
www.theforensicnurse.com
Forensic Science Society
www.forensic-science-society.org.uk
High Technology Crime Investigation Association
www.htcia.org
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
www.ieee.org
International Association of Computer Investigative Specialists
www.iacis.com
International Association for Identification
www.theiai.org
International Association of Forensic Nurses
www.forensicnurse.org
International Association of Forensic Toxicologists
www.tiaft.org
International Institute of Forensic Engineering Sciences
www.ifes.org
International Society of Forensic Computer Examiners
www.isfce.com
National Association of Medical Examiners
www.thename.org
Society of Forensic Toxicologists
www.soft-tox.org
Southeastern Association of Forensic Document Examiners
www.safde.org
Southeastern Association of Toxicologists
www.sat-tox.org
Southwestern Association of Forensic Document Examiners
www.swafde.org
Young Forensic Scientists Forum
www.aafs.org/yfsf/index.html
For more forensic links, click
here.
For information about the folks who brought you this book, the Forensic Sciences Foundation, Incorporated,
click HERE.
Please direct all questions/comments to Sonya Bynoe at the AAFS Office at
sbynoe@aafs.org.
For a list of colleges and universities who offer both undergraduate and graduate programs in forensic science within the United States as well as internationally,
click HERE.
Produced for the American Academy of Forensic Sciences by:
The Forensic Sciences Foundation, Inc.
410 N. 21st Street
Colorado Springs, CO 80904
(719) 636-1100
Fax (719) 636-1993
Ronald Singer, MS, Chair, Board of Trustees
Anne Warren, BS, Executive Director
Co-Editors:
Gil Brogdon, MD
Carla Noziglia, MS
The Forensic Sciences Foundation, Inc., is a non-profit tax exempt organization under
Section 501 (c) (3) of the Internal Revenue Code.
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